Hoysala Empire

The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ, pronounced [hojsəɭə saːmraːdʒjə] ( listen)) was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu.

The Hoysala rulers were originally hill people of Malnad Karnataka, an elevated region in the Western Ghats range. In the 12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the then ruling Western Chalukyas and Kalachuri kingdoms, they annexed areas of present day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta in present day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India.

The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, including the well known Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.

Pala Empire

The Pāla Empire was a Buddhist dynasty as well as one of the major middle kingdoms of India that ruled from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The Palas were often described by opponents as the Lords of Gauda. The name Pala (Modern Bengali: pal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal. The Buddhist dynasty lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Somapura Mahavihara built by Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent.

The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan) in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Pratiharas, Gurjara and the Dravidas.

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Orissa and Northern India.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power and glory to that extent. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The Palas had extensive trade as well as influence in south-east Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the Sailendra Empire (present-day Malaya, Java, Sumatra). The Pala Empire eventually disintegrated in the 12th century under the attack of the Sena dynasty.

Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire (Kannada:ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the sixth century Chalukya dynasty of Badami. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of deccan and central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the Paramara of Malwa, Tailapa II a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Somesvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.

For over a century, the two empires of southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation.^[1][2][3][4] Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the twelfth century.

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit.

Rashtrakuta

The Rashtrakuta Empire (Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of southern, central and northern India between the sixth and the tenth centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a seventh century copper plate grant that mentions their rule from Manpur in the Malwa region of modern Madhya Pradesh. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur which is modern Elichpur in Maharashtra and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and their language.

The clan that ruled from Elichpur was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an impressive empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively.

This period, between the eight and the tenth centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganga River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.

During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the most famous king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Harsha

Harsha Nukala or HarshaNukala (हर्षवर्धन) or "Harsha vardhan" (590–647) was an Indian (Hindu in earlier life, became a Buddhist later) emperor who ruled Northern India for forty one years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a king of Thanesar. At the height of his power his kingdom spanned the Punjab, Gujarat, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain North of the Narmada River. After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the sixth century C.E., North India reverted to small republics and small monarchical states. Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to Central India, and they, at an assembly, crowned Harsha king in April 606 AD when he was merely 16 years old.

According to Banabhatta's Harshaćárita they were descended from a certain Pushpabhuti who founded and ruled the kingdom of Sthanvisvara or modern Thanesar, an ancient Hindu pilgrimage centre and one of the 51 Shaktipeeth's, now a small town in the vicinity of the newly created Kurukshetra in the state of Haryana north of Delhi. The name Pushpabhuti is the key to Harsha's origins and the relevant reference point is an inscription dated 181 AD and found at Gunda in the state of Gujarat. That inscription mentions a general of Rudrasimha I or Rudrasingh by the name Rudrabhuti. Rudradaman I, an ancestor of Rudrasimha I had conquered the Yaudheya, who were the original masters of Haryana.

The famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Xuanzang, states that Harsha was a but makes no comment about his family's origins.

According to Alexander Cunningham, in 1871 Xuanzang must have mistaken the Vaisa for Bais Rajput. Thomas Watters has pointed out this is most unlikely as Xuanzang, "had ample opportunities for learning the antecedents of the royal family, and he must have had some ground for his assertion." However, Banabhatta clarifies that the Bais Rajput descent must have been correct considering the Harshacarita the author Bâna never stated his background to be strangely non Kshatriya. Harsha's Royal descent being known (rulers of Sthanvisvara, modern Thanesar) and his sister being married into prominent Kshatriya families of Maukharis. (a highly contentious occurrence, had Harsha's family not been of royal or Kshatriya descent).

Moreover, upon his formal coronation ceremony, Harsha took the title Rajputra.

Chalukya dynasty

The Chalukya Empire (Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು, IPA: [tʃaːɭukjə]) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related, but individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from their capital Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from their capital Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) till the end of the 12th century.

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Cheras

The Chera Dynasty (Tamil: சேரர்) was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled in southern India from before the Sangam era (300 BC - AD 250) until the twelfth century AD. Kalitokai, a Sangha work describes Cheras as Villavar people. Tamil literature calls the Chera king Villavar Kon, the king of Villavar (hunter) tribe. Chera Flag had bow and arrow the insignia of Villavar people. The early Cheras ruled Kerala and Kongu Nadu. Their capital was Vanchi Muthur, the present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. Since they were a hill tribe, their ancient capital could not be on the plains or on the coast. Karur is on the plains and Kodungallur is on the sea coast. They cannot be considered as their ancient capital, Vanchi Muthur. Their ancient capital Vanchi Muthur is in Kanthallur-Kizhanthur region of Idukki District of Kerala, for obvious reasons.They moved their administrative capital to Karur (Karur Vanchi) in second century, until the first dynasty perished in 3rd Century AD. The second dynasty ruled from out skirts of Muziris on the banks of River Periyar from 8th century CE.

The other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coromandel Coast and Pandyas in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in frequent warfare as well as constant intermarriage with the Pandyas and Cholas. Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to the then Tamil Country (part of which was modern-day Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from the ancient period is available throughout the Malabar Coast, from the Greek, Roman and Arabic coins unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Thrissur) etc in Kerala. Muziris has been referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably near Kodungallur. Sangam Chera coins and inscriptions are found in Pattanam, near Kodungallur in Kerala, Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu.

While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism), other religious traditions like Buddhism came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings. Jainism came to Chera Kingdom by the second century BCE. Some adhered to Islam as well, notably, Cheraman Perumal who ruled the Chera Dynasty in the late 8th century.

Cholas Dynasty

The Chola dynasty (Tamil: சோழர் குலம், IPA: ['t͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Tamil dynasty which ruled over parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to the dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, a northern ruler, and the dynasty continued to reign over varying territory until the 12th century AD.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-east Asia. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the thirteenth century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall.

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.

Pandyan Dynasty

The Pandyan Empire (Tamil: பாண்டியர்) was an ancient Tamil state in South India. The Pandyas, Chola, Chera and Pallava Dynasties are the four Dravidian Tamil Dynasties which ruled South India until the 15th century CE. They initially ruled from Korkai, a seaport on the Southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since the ancient period, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century AD, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyan empire was home to temples including Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple built on the bank of the river Thamirabarani in Tirunelveli.

The Pandyas of Southern India are believed to have been founded around five to six centuries before the Christian Era. Their recorded existence and mention are found in records dating to as early as 550 BC. Emperor Augustus of Rome at Antioch knew of the Pandyan of Dramira and received a Pandyan ambassador with letters and gifts from this ancient Tamil Kingdom. Strabo described an ambassador to emperor Augustus Caesar from a South Indian King called Pandyan. The country of the Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandyan Mediterranea by Periplus and Modura Regia Pandyan by Ptolemy.

The early Pandyan Dynasty of the Sangam Literature faded into obscurity upon the invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century.

The Later Pandyas (1150-1350) entered their golden age under Maravman Sundara Pandiyan and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251), who expanded the empire into Telugu country, conquered Kalinga (Orissa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 16th century.

The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature before the Christian Era. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world. Tradition holds that the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under their patronage, and that some of the Pandya Kings were poets themselves.

Indo-Greeks

The Hellenistic expansion brought the Ancient Greeks in India also known as Indo-Greeks. They established the Graeco-Indian Kingdom or Indo-Greek Kingdom covering various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BC, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India early in the second century BC. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan).

The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as Taxila, Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.

During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended ancient Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art.

The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.

Pallava

The Pallava dynasty was a tamil dynasty which ruled the Northern Tamil Nadu region and whole of Andhra Pradesh with their capital at Kanchipuram. The word Pallava in Sanskrit means branch. The Pallava dynasty is a an offshoot of the chola rulers . They expanded into the Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh. This area is still referred to as Palnadu or Pallava Nadu. Pallavas gained prominence after the eclipse of Satavahanas of Andhra and decline of Cholas in Tamilnadu. The Pallavas patronized Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit. Some of the most illustrious Sanskrit poets like Bharavi and Dandin and the seashore rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram belongs to the Pallavan era.

Pallavas rose in power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century.

Throughout their reign they were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south and were finally defeated by the Chola kings in the 8th century CE.

Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, still seen today in Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval south Indian architecture. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty, a contemporary of Skandavarman IV and Nandivarman I, and the son of Simhavarman II, but this is debatable

Satvahana Dynasty

Indus Valley civilizations covering approx 1/2 million miles of Northern Indian subcontinent is the largest ancient civilization in history till now. Since both stone and copper are used it is a chalcolithicivil.The Indus Valley people are highly artistic and skilled.Their chief features include a highly organized urban setup and a strong economy.The IVC economy is flourishing with extensive cultivation of wheat, barley. The Indus river is used for transport, weights are all very accurate and highly standardized and traders have own personalised seals.
Harappa Civilisation - Fashion

The exact origins of the IVC people is disputed but appears to belong to four ethnic types including the Protoaustioloids, Mediterraneans, Mongoloids and Alpines. People enjoy a comfortable life with a variety of luxuries like ornaments in agate and gold, cosmetics (kajal) and elaborate toys for children. Painting on pottery is skillful and covers various themes while small sculptures in terracotta (animals, toys), soft stone (bearded man) and metal jewels abound.

The greatest artistic skill is in the seals. These engravings of animals, flowers and other symbols have artistic, religious and economic value .
Harappa Civilisation - Town Planning

The city of Mohenjo Daro is testimony to the town planning activities of the IVC. Cities are divided into lower dwellings & the Citadel which houses important buildings. The streets form a grid system and are of modulated width. Bricks of fixed sizes are used for building while stone and wood are also used.Municipal authorities who are responsible for the whole of the valley also regularly maintain a highly efficient drainage system.Buildings in the lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional rather than decorative. But many houses are 2 storeyed.

Harappa Civilisation - Architecture

Great Bath: Mohenjo Daro has a sophisticated system of water supply & drainage and its brickwork, is highly functional and the amazing part of it is - that it is completely waterproof. The granaries are also intelligently constructed, with strategic airducts and platform are divided into units.
The Dock at Lothal is to be used for inland & foreign trade.

Harappa Civilisation - Religion

The culture and religion of the IVC overlap and perhaps repetitive symbols such as the pipal leaf and swastika have religious significance. Human dieties include a "proto type of Shiva" and a mother goddess. Animal symbols such as the bull and unicorn and those of tree spirits and water dieties are also common.

These are images from the Harappan culture which existed in the Indus River Valley and which reached its peak around 2600 BC, shortly after the development of urban societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Additional information can be found on the " India and South Asia " Chronology.

Vedic Era

1200 - 500 BC - Vedic Era

Rig Veda

The Rig-Veda is a collection of over 1,000 hymns, which contain the mythology of the Hindu gods, and is considered to be one of the foundations of the Hindu religion. While the Rig is the oldest of the Vedas, there are three other Vedas. There is the Sama Veda, which is the "knowledge of chants" or a number of basic hymns recited at sacrifices. There is also the Yajur Veda or "knowledge of rites" which serve basically as a "how to make sacrifices" book. The final Veda is the Athara Veda, this Veda represents the knowledge given by Athara who was a sage. These Vedas were passed on orall

Harappa Civilisation

Indus Valley civilizations covering approx 1/2 million miles of Northern Indian subcontinent is the largest ancient civilization in history till now. Since both stone and copper are used it is a chalcolithicivil.The Indus Valley people are highly artistic and skilled.Their chief features include a highly organized urban setup and a strong economy.The IVC economy is flourishing with extensive cultivation of wheat, barley. The Indus river is used for transport, weights are all very accurate and highly standardized and traders have own personalised seals.
Harappa Civilisation - Fashion

The exact origins of the IVC people is disputed but appears to belong to four ethnic types including the Protoaustioloids, Mediterraneans, Mongoloids and Alpines. People enjoy a comfortable life with a variety of luxuries like ornaments in agate and gold, cosmetics (kajal) and elaborate toys for children. Painting on pottery is skillful and covers various themes while small sculptures in terracotta (animals, toys), soft stone (bearded man) and metal jewels abound.

The greatest artistic skill is in the seals. These engravings of animals, flowers and other symbols have artistic, religious and economic value .
Harappa Civilisation - Town Planning

The city of Mohenjo Daro is testimony to the town planning activities of the IVC. Cities are divided into lower dwellings & the Citadel which houses important buildings. The streets form a grid system and are of modulated width. Bricks of fixed sizes are used for building while stone and wood are also used.Municipal authorities who are responsible for the whole of the valley also regularly maintain a highly efficient drainage system.Buildings in the lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional rather than decorative. But many houses are 2 storeyed.

Harappa Civilisation - Architecture

Great Bath: Mohenjo Daro has a sophisticated system of water supply & drainage and its brickwork, is highly functional and the amazing part of it is - that it is completely waterproof. The granaries are also intelligently constructed, with strategic airducts and platform are divided into units.
The Dock at Lothal is to be used for inland & foreign trade.

Harappa Civilisation - Religion

The culture and religion of the IVC overlap and perhaps repetitive symbols such as the pipal leaf and swastika have religious significance. Human dieties include a "proto type of Shiva" and a mother goddess. Animal symbols such as the bull and unicorn and those of tree spirits and water dieties are also common.

These are images from the Harappan culture which existed in the Indus River Valley and which reached its peak around 2600 BC, shortly after the development of urban societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Additional information can be found on the " India and South Asia " Chronology.

Hinduism

It is not easy to define Hinduism, for it is more than a religion in the Western sense, as our Ancient History Guide sees it. Also known to practitioners as Sanatana Dharma, which means everlasting or eternal religion/truth/rule, Hinduism can best be defined as a way of life based on the teachings of ancient sages and scriptures like the Vedas and the Upanishads. The word dharma connotes "that which supports the universe" and effectively means any path of spiritual discipline which leads to God.

Hindu Dharma, as one scholar analogizes, can be compared to a fruit tree, with its roots representing the Vedas and the Upanishads, the thick trunk symbolizing the spiritual experiences of numerous sages and saints, its branches representing various theological traditions, and the fruit itself, in different shapes and sizes, symbolizing various sects and subsects. However, the concept of Hinduism defies a definite definition because of its uniqueness.

Hinduism does not have any one founder, and any one core doctrine to which controversies can be referred to for resolution. There is also no point in time when it could be said to have begun. It does not require its adherents to accept any one idea, and thus is cultural, not creedal, with a history contemporaneous with the peoples with which it is associated. It is also marked by an attitude which seems to accommodate religious and cultural perspectives other than one's own, and so is characterized by a rich variety of ideas and practices resulting in what appears as a multiplicity of religions under one term 'Hinduism'.

Hinduism is perhaps the only religious tradition that is so diverse in its theoretical premises and practical expressions that it is like a compilation of religions. According to philosopher Jeaneane Fowler, Hinduism can never be neatly slotted into any particular belief system — monism, theism, monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, panentheism — for all these systems are reflected in its many facets.

According to historians, the origin of Hinduism dates back to 5000 or more years. The word "Hindu" is derived from the name of river Indus, which flows through northern India. In ancient times the river was called the 'Sindhu', but the Persians who migrated to India called the river 'Hindu', the land 'Hindustan' and its inhabitants 'Hindus'. Thus the religion followed by the Hindus came to be known as 'Hinduism'.

It is generally believed that the basic tenets of Hinduism was brought to India by the Aryans who settled along the banks of the Indus river about 2000 BC. According to one scholar, the evolution of Hinduism may be divided into three periods: the ancient (6500 BCE-1000 AD), the medieval (1000-1800 AD), and the modern (1800 AD to present). Hinduism is commonly thought to be the oldest religion in the history of human civilization.

Hinduism lacks any unified system of beliefs and ideas. It is a phenomenon and represents a broad spectrum of beliefs and practices which on one hand are akin to paganism, pantheism and the like, and on the other very profound, abstract, metaphysical speculations. Since religion and culture are nearly interchangeable terms in Hinduism, emotive expressions like 'bhakti' (devotion) or 'dharma' (what is right) and 'yoga' (discipline) are used to depict essential aspects of the religion. Hinduism believes in idol worship, casteism, reincarnation, 'karma', 'dharma' and 'moksha'. Some moral ideals in Hinduism include non-violence, truthfulness, friendship, compassion, fortitude, self-control, purity and generosity.

Two types of sacred writings constitute the Hindu scriptures: heard (sruti) and memorized (smriti).

Sruti literature refers to the habit of ancient Hindu saints who led a solitary life in the woods, where they developed a consciousness that enabled them to 'hear' or cognize the truths of the universe. Sruti literature are of two parts: the Vedas and Upanishads.

There are four Vedas:
The Rig Veda -"Royal Knowledge"
The Sama Veda - "Knowledge of Chants"
The Yajur Veda - "Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals"
The Atharva Veda - "Knowledge of Incarnations"

There are 108 extant Upanishads, of which 10 are most important:
Isa, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taitiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka.

Smriti Literature refers to 'memorized' or 'remembered' poetry and epics. They are more popular with Hindus, because they are easy to understand, explains universal truths through symbolism and mythology, and contain some of the most beautiful and exciting stories in the history of religion world literature. The three most important of Smriti literature are:

The Bhagavad Gita - The most well known of the Hindu scriptures, called the "Song of the Adorable One", written about the 2nd century BC and forms the sixth part of Mahabharata. It contains some of the most brilliant theological lessons about the nature of God and of life ever written. The Mahabharata - The world's longest epic poem written about 9th century BC, and deals with the power struggle between the Pandava and the Kaurava families, with an intertwining of numerous episodes that make up life. The Ramayana - The most popular of Hindu epics, composed by Valmiki around 4th or 2nd centuries BC with later additions up to about 300 CE. It depicts the story of the royal couple of Ayodha - Ram and Sita and a host of other characters and their exploits.

Who Were the Aryans?

Aryans

The Aryans were semi-nomadic Nordic Whites, perhaps located originally on the steppes of southern Russia and Central Asia, who spoke the parent language of the various Indo-European languages.

Latin, Greek, Hittite, Sanskrit, French, German, Latvian, English, Spanish, Russian etc. are all Indo-European languages; Indo-European, or more properly Proto-Indo-European (PIE), is the lost ancestral language from which those languages ultimately derive. The "Proto" indicates that the grammar and vocabulary of this long extinct language, probably spoken up until 3000 BC, are a hypothetical reconstruction by modern philologists. Just as Romance languages like Italian and Spanish derive from Latin, so Latin derives from PIE.

Indo-European philology traditionally used "Aryan" both to denote a people, understood racially or ethnically, and the language group itself ("Aryan speech"), irrespective of the race or ethnicity of the people speaking its various branches. In the wake of National Socialist Germany's defeat, the term fell out of general scholarly use in both senses, and "Indo-European" (IE) became the preferred designation of the language group, "Indo-Europeans" of both the people who occupied the original Aryan homeland and their descendants, who gradually spread out across Europe, much of the Indian sub-continent, and parts of the Near East. Racial nationalists are not, of course, obliged to adopt the timid PC-lexicon of contemporary scholarship, but we should be aware of imprecision of "Aryan" as a racial or ethnic classification.

Arya, meaning "noble," appears in various Indo-European languages. Its plural form (Aryas="nobles") was probably the name the Aryans used to describe themselves prior to their dispersal, and it may survive in Eire (Ireland) and certainly survives in Iran (Airyanam vaejo="realm of the Aryans"). The discovery of thousands of such cognate words in widely separated languages, along with similar grammatical structures, led philologists to conclude, early in the nineteenth century, that most European languages had evolved from a common proto-language spoken millennia ago by a distinct people who gradually left their original homeland in a series of migrations, carrying their language with them.

Traditionally Greek, Latin and Sanskrit were considered the closest languages to PIE, and much of the reconstructed Aryan proto-language is based on them. Modern Lithuanian, however, is the most archaic living language, closer to the original Aryan speech than any other. There is even an IE language, Tocharian, attested in Chinese Turkestan, which indicates that Aryans must have made an appearance in the Far East, a long-standing piece of linguistic evidence which has been recently confirmed by the discovery of the physical remains of a blond-haired people in China.

One Model of Indo-European ("Aryan") Migration

Perhaps the most famous proof for the prehistoric existence of PIE is the word for king: rex in Latin, raja in Sanskrit, ri in Old Irish, along with a host of other cognates. All are obviously variants of a common word for king. Since none of the peoples speaking these various languages were in physical contact with one another during the historical period -- i.e. at a time for which written records exist -- comparative philologists inferred that their respective languages must have evolved from a single proto-language, which is the only way of explaining the presence of the same word for "king" among such widely dispersed peoples. The Romans clearly didn't borrow rex from the Irish or the Indo-Aryans; each had instead inherited their own word for "king" from a common ancestral language.

Philologists can also, moreover, safely conclude that the Aryans must have had kings prior to emigrating from their original homeland in southern Russia. In fact a fairly detailed body of evidence about prehistoric Aryan political organization, marriage practices, and religious beliefs can be reconstructed on the basis of the survival of common vocabulary in the various extant Indo-European languages: They worshiped a sky-god, they traced descent through the male line, they raised cattle, they drank meed, they used horse-drawn chariots (which they probably invented) as weapons of war, etc. Even the red, white and blue/green that appears in so many modern flags may have an Aryan pedigree. It is likely a survival from the Aryan tripartite social division of their communities into priests (white), warriors (red), and herders and cultivators (blue/green).

Aryans, or more specifically Indo-Aryans, make their first notable appearance in history around 2000-1500 BC as invaders of Northern India. The Sanskrit Rig Veda, a collection of religious texts still revered by modern Hindus, records (often enigmatically) their gradual subjugation of the dark-skinned inhabitants, the Dasyus: e.g. "Indra [=Norse Thor, Celtic Taranis] has torn open the fortresses of the Dasyus, which in their wombs hid the black people. He created land and water for Manu [=Aryan man]"; "lower than all besides, hast thou, O Indra, cast down the Dasyus, abject tribes of Dasas"; "after slaying the Dasyus, let Indra with his white friends win land, let him win the sun and water"; "Indra subdued the Dasyu color and drove it into hiding." With all-outstripping chariot-wheel, O Indra,
Thou, far-famed, hast overthrown the twice ten kings ...
Thou goest from fight to fight, intrepidly
Destroying castle after castle here with strength. (RV 1.53)
The Aryans were remarkably expansionist, and almost everywhere they went they conquered and subjugated the indigenous peoples, imposing their languages and (to varying degrees) their religious beliefs on the natives, and receiving in turn contributions from the peoples whom they conquered. Aryan invasions -- or more accurately, a long sequence of different invasions by speakers of Indo-European languages -- swept across Old Europe beginning as early as the fourth millennium BC, and over time the conquerors and the conquered melded into specific peoples with distinctive languages. Most of the contemporary inhabitants of Europe, along with their respective early national cultures, are the result of interaction between successive waves of Aryan invaders and culture of the particular White people that they conquered and with whom they later intermarried, and as a result almost all modern European languages are members of the Western branch of the IE family tree.

The birth of a European culture, however, predates the arrival of the Indo-Europeans: The cave art of Lascaux, which some have identified as the first flowering of Western man's creative genius, was the work of Old Europeans, as were Stonehenge in the North and the Minoan Palace culture of Crete in the South. A pan-European religious symbolism had already evolved, much of which was later incorporated into IE mythologies, including various regional adaptations of the ubiquitous Old European reverence for the Mother Goddess. Many of the principal figures in Greek mythology predate the arrival of Aryans, and during the course of ancient history Old European religious beliefs and practices continually reasserted themselves.

Europe is European because the conquerors and the conquered were members the same White race, different branches on the same family tree; India is a morass of poverty because the bulk of the conquered, with whom the Indo-Aryans eventually intermarried, were non-White Veddoids. The lesson is obvious. Even today high-caste Hindus can still be identified by their Caucasian features and light skin, and the poorest and most backward parts of India are generally the darkest.

As an aside, recent genetic studies have indicated that the Basques of Aquitaine and the Pyrenees are probably the purest form of Old Europeans as they existed prior to the arrival of Indo-European invaders. They evidently emerged from the invasions of Europe unconquered, and they remained sufficiently isolated to retain their own unique, non-IE language.

Epic Age in India

The Epic age in India is named so because some of the greatest epics came into being during this time. The epic period is estimated to be roughly from 1000 to 600 B.C. The ancient Indian society is described in a very vivid manner in these three epics. The three famous Indian epics that were created during this time were the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Upanishads. Not only are these three a part of the religious and mythological scriptures, but are also an important part of the historical roots of India. Read on about Indian epic age.

The very ideology of Hinduism is based on the famous Bhagwad Gita, which is a part of the Mahabharata. Thus, the Mahabharata is a foundation of the religion that is thriving today. It is as important to us as the Bible is for Christians. We get a clear picture of the kind of life people led during that point of time. According to the evidences found in the epics, the society was basically rural in nature. People remained prepared for any attacks or external aggressions by keeping weapons with them. The rulers were not chosen but were hereditary. The main economic activity was agriculture and small scale industries like arts, handicrafts, pottery, etc. thrived.

The epics tell us about the way the society was ruled at that time. The King basically filled his treasure vault with the taxes collected from people. He was the highest authority who had the power to punish and pardon. The priests were given the task of performing the religious rituals and sacrifices to make sure that no evil forces hampered the kingdom. With time, the priests began to gain power and also started to influence the king. The king listened to them because the priests were highly learned people who were supposed to be the voice of Gods.

The warriors were trained in using weapons and were supposed to be the protectors of the palaces. Though caste system was there, it was not too rigid. A warrior or an out caste could become a priest if he was adopted by one. The most respected and feared of all were the Dravidians who could not be questioned and were unaffected by the society. The most popular recreational activity was gambling. Horse racing, hunting, gambling, etc. were all introduced during the Epic Age in India.

Chalukya Dynasty

During the 6th and the 8th century, the empire that ruled the Deccan region of India was the Chalukya dynasty. After fading away for some time, they came back to power during the 10th century and ruled till 12th century. The Chalukyas are essentially divided into three broad categories:

• Eastern Chalukyas: Ruled from the Vengi region
• Western Chalukyas: Ruled from the Badami region
• Later Western Chalukyas: Ruled from Kalyani region

The most famous rulers in the empire of the Chalukyas were Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II. The ruler Pulakesin II is said to have defeated emperor Harshavardhana in a battle on the banks of the River Narmada. He also waged a battle against Mahendravarman, the Pallava ruler and conquered him and his kingdom.

The Chalukya dynasty is famous for developing and encouraging art and architecture during its era. The rulers of the Chalukya dynasty were great enthusiasts of art. This is evident from the fact that they built many temples near the region of Badami. A famous example of their architecture is the Virupaksha Temple in Karnataka. The sculptures that adorn the temples are beautifully carved and sculpted and represent scenes from the famous epic Ramayana. Some of the paintings at Ajanta and Ellora cave temples are considered to belong to this period.

Pulakesin II was an admirer of art and always encouraged any art form to flourish in his kingdom. He was also fond of literature and encouraged poetry to flourish in his kingdom. The three famous poets of Kannada literature Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna were from this era. Pulakesin was an able administrator and his subjects were devoted to him. Though he was Hindu by religion Pulakesin was tolerant towards Buddhism as well as Jainism. He built many monasteries in his kingdom that provided shelter to almost 5000 monks. The Chalukya kingdom was truly flourishing till it declined after the 12th century.

Buddhism

The socio-economic conditions during the 6th century BC led to the rise of many heterodox sects in India and Buddhism was one of them. Buddhism forms an important part of Indian history and culture. Buddhism is a religion that is based on Dharma and Philosophy. It was started by Siddhartha Gautama more popularly known as Lord Buddha. The word Buddha essentially means the "Awakened One". The teachings of Buddha have been preserved till date and are essentially in Sanskrit and Pali language. The history of Buddhism dates back to almost 2500 years and was established around the 5th Century B.C. In this section, we give an introduction to Buddhism and cover the important aspects of Buddhism religion.

A Buddha is basically described as a person who "wakes up" from the "sleep of ignorance". This is done through constant efforts such as meditation and abstaining from materialistic pleasures. The person realizes the true meaning of reality without any help from others and lives the rest of his life preaching knowledge for the benefit of others. A person who wants to attain inner bliss and true happiness should stay away from all worldly pleasures and do meditation in order to tame the mind. Nirvana can be attained by following the Four Noble Truths that lead you to the Eight Fold Path of nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths
To attain inner happiness and bliss, one must first realize the Four Noble Truths that explains the true meaning of life. The Four Noble Truths are:

• Life means suffering
• Origin of suffering is attachment
• Cessation of suffering is attainable
• Path to the cessation of suffering is Eight Fold Path

A person who realizes the meaning of the Four Noble Truths is closer to the attainment of Nirvana. On realizing the meaning of life, it is easier to accept reality and strive towards attaining a stage that is called Nirvana. The Four Noble Truths assert that suffering exists in the world. The cause of human suffering is attachment and the inability to let go of worldly possessions. However this suffering is temporary and can be terminated. The path that leads to the termination of suffering is the Eight Fold Path.

The Eight Fold Path
The Eight Fold Path basically explains the way to end suffering and attain Nirvana. It is also known as the Middle Way as it lies somewhere between total intemperance and total asceticism. It is about seeking the bliss through a way that makes not just the soul but also the body relaxed and peaceful. The Eight Fold Path is as follows:

• Right View
  The first aspect of the Eight Fold Path is right view and perception. The ability to see through things clearly will help you in instilling the right thought and right action.
• Right Intention
  The right view leads to the right intention. This basically refers to preferences and decisions. This is the first step towards performing right action and deeds. Right intention can be explained as the feeling of dedication towards self improvement.
• Right Speech
  Right speech is known as the first principle of moral and ethical conduct. The right speech is an integral part of the Eight Fold Path. Words should be chosen carefully so as not to cause pain to another soul. Words are crucial as they can either make or break relations. Positive, warm and friendly words are the foundation of right speech.
• Right Action
  Right action basically refers to the deeds and bodily actions that are performed by an individual. These actions should not be done with wrong intentions or with a hurtful thought. The actions that you do should bring about a positive effect or change in the life of an individual.
• Right Livelihood
  The right kind of livelihood means that one should earn a living through ethical means, hard work and the right way. One should not indulge in wrong means of earning money like taking lives, selling animals and human trafficking, selling intoxicants or alcohol, etc.
• Right Effort
  The right effort is what makes all other paths worthwhile. Without effort nothing is achievable in life. Positive effort takes a person towards positive goals in life while distracted efforts take a person towards negative goals. The right kind of effort makes every action and word meaningful and worthwhile and brings you closer to Nirvana.
• Right Mindfulness
  The process of conceptualization with the help of active observation and controlled thoughts is known as right mindfulness. Perception induces thought and this thought is interpreted into experiences and actions. The ability to see things in a clear perspective with transparent consciousness is what right mindfulness is all about.
• Right Concentration
  The final principle of the Eight Fold Path is the right concentration. The mind should be concentrated on positive forces so as to achieve positive results. If used properly, concentration of the mind is very powerful. People who practice Buddhism meditate to focus their minds in order clear it from clutter (unwanted thoughts). This concentration helps to see things in a clearer perspective and accept reality the way it is.

Gautama Buddha

Gautama Buddha is considered to be the epitome of wisdom and knowledge. His life is an inspiration for many people who can't cope up with the increasing pressures of today's fast paced life. The teachings of Buddha talk about realizing your inner self and finally the attainment of Nirvana or total bliss. Lord Gautama Buddha was born roughly around 560 B.C. in Northern India. Gautam Buddha forms an important character in the history of ancient India.

King Suddhodana, the ruler of Sakhya clan was the father of Buddha. His mother's name was Maya. He was born in a small grove at a place called Lumbini while his mother was on her way to her maternal home for the delivery of the child. It is said that the birth of the Buddha took place among many auspicious signs. The Gods themselves made preparations for the birth of the child.

Flowers bloomed on the tree under which he was born, gentle rains calmed the weather, light music filled the air and calm smells filled the atmosphere. When Buddha was born, his body is said to have borne thirty two auspicious signs or birthmarks, which indicated that his future was going to be very bright. His mother died seven days after giving birth to him and he was brought up by her sister named Mahaprajapati who became his foster mother.

The king made preparations for an elaborate celebration after he was born. The baby was named Siddhartha, which means someone who accomplishes his aims. During the grand celebrations, great sages were called to predict the baby's future. The astrologers predicted that the child had a bright future and would be known throughout the world either as a powerful emperor or a revered monk who would leave his house and other worldly pleasures to become a holy and enlightened person.

The king was worried about the prediction about his son becoming a monk and asked what would make him turn into a monk. The astrologers predicted that four signs would prompt him to leave his worldly possessions and seek salvation. These would be an old crippled man, a diseased man, a corpse and a monk. The king grew worried about this prediction and made sure that his son never went out of the palace and brought him everything he wanted inside the palace premises.

Siddhartha got married at the age of sixteen to a girl named Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula. One day, he somehow managed to bribe a servant to take him out of the palace. As predicted by the astrologers, he saw a crippled old man, a diseased man, a corpse and finally a peaceful monk. The first three disturbed him to a great extent and made him realize that life and beauty were not permanent. However, when he saw the serene and calm on the face of the monk, he made a decision that he would leave all his worldly possessions and pursue a saintly life.

Siddhartha left his family, palace, power and all worldly possessions for pursuing a saintly life. He shaved his head, put on yellow robes and proceeded towards the capital of Magadha known as Rajgriha. He then went towards the hills located near this kingdom where hermits were supposed to live in caves. He requested a hermit named Alamo Kalamo to guide and instruct him. After some time Siddhartha decided to go to another hermit for the pursuit of spirituality. He was determined to practice extreme forms of Yogic austerities to attain inner bliss. He stopped taking food entirely and became very weak by this constant torture.

One day as he was trying to meditate, some dancing girls passed by the place where he was sitting. The song they were singing suddenly made Siddhartha realize that self torture is not going to help and staying away from food does not mean the attainment of true happiness. Thus, he began to eat again and gave up extreme forms of meditation and other practices. He realized that inner peace can be attained only if the body and mind is happy and free of any forms of pain or torture.

He sat in deep meditation under the shadow of a large peepal tree, which later came to be known as Bo-tree or tree of wisdom. He just wanted to attain full illumination and was even ready to give up his life for the sake of enlightenment. He was distracted by Maya (worldly pleasures) many times but he did not get allured and remained adamant in his position. Finally, he emerged victorious and attained full enlightenment. He was so ecstatic that he danced in a state of trance for seven days. When he gained his normal state of consciousness, his face shone with divine glow and his heart was filled with compassion and happiness.

Buddha (Enlightened One) traveled far and wide disseminating the knowledge he had gained. He preached the information and benefits he had gained from the enlightenment. He traveled to Varanasi once and gave a discourse to an audience that comprised of people from all walks of life. His preaching made an impact on everyone present there and a rich man known as Yasa converted to Buddhism. The next in line were Yasa's parents. Thousands followed thereafter and adopted Buddhism as not just their religion but a way of life. Lord Buddha is supposed to have died at the age of 80 due to some error in his diet.

Alexander's Invasion

Regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of all times, Alexander the Great was the King of Macedonia. He had an ambition to conquer the entire world. After conquering Persia, his forces moved towards the Indian sub-continent. It is estimated that Alexander lived from 356 B.C to 323 B.C. Though Alexander's invasion affected only the North Western parts of India, the event marks an important landmark in the history of India. Here is a brief write up on India's invasion by Alexander.

India was not unknown to the Greeks before the invasion by Alexander. Many Indian territories were ruled by the Persians who gained revenue from here in the form of gold. Herodotus, the Greek historian was aware of the riches that India had since he knew about the revenue collected by the Persian Empire. Roughly around 326 B.C Alexander decided to enter India from the northern frontiers. He crossed the Indus River and met King Ambi in Taxila. The king bowed down to the supremacy of Alexander and did not show any resistance.

His greatest battle was with King Porus, who was considered to be a very powerful Indian ruler during that time. The army of Greeks and Porus clashed during a fierce thunderstorm near River Hydaspes. Porus put up strong resistance against the Greeks. It was so fierce and violent that even Alexander was impressed by chivalry and power of Porus. It was during this battle that the faithful horse of Alexander got injured and died. Alexander named a city Buckephalia after the name of the horse Bucephalus. Ultimately Porus was defeated and was captured. But Alexander was impressed with the heroic Porus and decided to let him go and return his kingdom.

Alexander wanted to cross the Ganges River next but his army and deputies advised him otherwise. They told him to leave India since it was not easy to cross the river Ganges. Moreover, they had heard that the Nandas at the other side of Ganges were very powerful and possessed elephants and a gigantic army of soldiers. Thus, it would become difficult to defeat them. The Greeks were also becoming homesick and wanted to return. Halfheartedly, Alexander had to return due to the increasing pressures on him. Thus, the army of Alexander arranged and built ships in order to reach the ocean and take the oceanic route westwards to Greece. Half of the army came on the ships and the rest traveled along the coast.

Jainism

It is a common misconception among people that Jainism religion was started by Lord Mahavira. The truth is that Jainism existed long before Lord Mahavira was born. Lord Mahavira reformed Jainism and gave it more exposure. Thus, the history and origin of Jainism dates back to many centuries before Lord Mahavira was born. The religion of Jainism is based on philosophy and the concept of Dharma. Read on this section which is essentially an introduction to Jainism.

The Jains basically follow the teachings of 24 Tirthankaras or Enlightened spiritual leaders. Lord Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankara. He lived in approximately around 6th Century B.C. The Jains have influenced many cultures with their teachings and philosophies. They emphasize on non - violent form of living and treating all life forms with respect. They believe that self control is essential for the attainment of omniscience or infinite knowledge. The realization of infinite knowledge leads to Moksha or Nirvana.

The Jains are supposed to be the most educated religious community of India. Some of India's oldest libraries are of the Jains. The Jains are essentially of two types:
Digambaras: Jains who believed that monks should not wear clothes
Shwetambaras: Jains who believed that monks can wear only white clothes

Beliefs and Practices
The Jains believe in reincarnation. To free themselves of the cycle of birth and death, they practice asceticism that is stringent in nature. They basically struggle to make their present birth the last one. Their professions are chosen carefully and revolve around the protection of lives or doing good deeds for others. The ethical code followed by the Jains is very strict in nature and the ethics are followed with much dedication and sincerity. The Jains believe in the following principles and ethics.

Ahimsa
The Jains believe in Ahimsa or non-violence. They adopt Ahimsa as a way of life. Non violence does not mean only being calm and letting others live peacefully. It means that one should be peaceful in thought as well as action. All monks are strict vegetarians and regard even the tiniest insect as a sacred form of life.

Satya
Jains believe in speaking the Satya or truth always. They believe that falsehood is a deterrent in the attainment of Nirvana and is not useful in one's life. Not speaking the truth or running away from it is worthless and does not change the nature of truth.

Asteya
Jains believe in not stealing from others. They believe in being content with whatever they have. According to the Jains, nothing is permanent, not even one's body. Materialistic pleasures only hamper spiritual growth and create only a temporary sense of satisfaction.

Brahmacarya
Jains believe in being loyal to just one spouse for the entire life span. They believe that monogamy is the best way of life and is also a respect to the person you are spending your life with.

Aparigraha
Aparigraha means detachment from materialistic possessions. It means to possess only a few or basic required materials for a lifetime. In the life of a monk, material pleasures have no importance and in fact cease to be of any importance as time goes by.

They are recommended to lead life in four basic stages. The first stage is called Brahmacharya - ashram which means the life of a student. The second stage is called Grihasth - ashram which means having a family or leading a family life. The third stage is known as Vanaprasth - ashram which means doing social services and finishing off family responsibilities. The last and final stage of life is known as Sanyast - ashram which means abandonment of family life and adopting the life of an ascetic or a saint.

16 Mahajanapadas

In ancient India, a number of kingdoms emerged during the Vedic Age that were spread across the Indo-Gangetic plain. These kingdoms were also called as republics and 16 of them were regarded the greatest of all. These 16 kingdoms were known as the 16 Mahajanapadas. These 16 Maha Janapadas are mentioned in the ancient literature and scriptures. The term Maha Janapada actually means "great country" and is derived from Sanskrit. The sixteen mahajanapadas rose before the start of Buddhism in India. Though these places were tribal settlements initially, roughly by 600 B.C they grew into bigger political entities by grabbing land. The sixteen mahajanapadas are given here in detail.

Anga

The kingdom of Anga is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and was located roughly at the site of the present day Bihar and some parts of West Bengal. On the north was River Ganga and it was separated from the Magadha by River Champa. Anga was one of the most flourishing cities and was an important center of trade and commerce. It was regarded as one of the six principal cities of early India.

Assaka / Ashmaka

Assaka, also known as Ashmaka was a kingdom that was located in the south of India. During the time of Buddha, this tribe was located on the banks of river Godavari. The capital city of Assaka was known as Potana. It was situated in central India and extended till southern India. It is estimated that Assaka was situated roughly at the place where modern day Maharashtra is located.

Avanti

Avanti was a very important kingdom located in Western India and was considered to be one of the four important monarchies during the time Buddhism began in India. River Vetravati used to flow right through Avanti thus dividing it into north and south provinces. Avanti was located roughly at the place where the state of Madhya Pradesh is located now. Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and later became a part of Magadhan Empire.

Chedi / Cheti

There were two different settlements of the Chedis, also known as Cheti. One was in the mountainous regions of Nepal while the other was located near River Yamuna. The southern boundaries of Chedi went till the banks of River Narmada. The Chedis are mentioned in Rig Veda, which is regarded as the oldest scripture. This means that Chedis were prevalent here since a long time.

Gandhara

The Gandharas established themselves since the Vedic Age on the banks of River Kubha till the River Indus. With time, they crossed Indus and expanded their territory into Punjab. The Gandharas were very aggressive in nature and were masters of the art of warfare. It is said that this kingdom was founded by the son of Aruddha known as Gandhara.

Kamboja

Kamboja was said to have been located on either sides of the Hindukush. In early scriptures and literature, Kamboja is mentioned along with Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika quite a number of times. The Kambojas were supposed to have both Indian and Iranian similarities.

Kasi

The Aryans who had settled around Varanasi were known as Kasis. The city was flanked by the rivers Varuna and Asi from which the place derives its name. Kasi was the most powerful kingdom of the sixteen Janapadas before the rise of Buddhism. During the rise of Buddha, it was converted into Kosala. This place is mentioned as Kausika / Kausaka in the Matsya Purana.

Kosala

Kosala was located around 70 miles to the north west of present day Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. It was flanked in the south by River Ganga, in the north by the Himalayas and in the east by the River Gandak. The ruler was called king Prasenjit who was succeeded by his son Vidudabha. During his son's reign, Kosala was combined with Magadha. The three chief cities of Kosala were Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti.

Kuru

The origin of the Kuru clan can be traced to the Puru - Bharata family. Some of them were settled in central India and some were living beyond the Himalayan ranges. It is said that the founder of Kururashtra in Kurukshetra was the son of Samvarsana called Kuru. The Kurus were known for their profound wisdom and sound health. The Kurus switched to republic form of government from monarchy during 5th Century B.C.

Machcha / Matsya

The kingdom of Matsya or Machcha is said to have comprised the region of the present day Jaipur in Rajasthan along with Alwar and Bharatpur. The founder of this kingdom was king Virata and the capital of this kingdom was named Viratanagara after him. The Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom as there are evidences that show that this place was ruled by the king of Chedi.

Magadha

The Magadhas are referred to in the Atharva Veda. According to the early scriptures, the Magadhas were not fully Brahmins. Thus, they were loathed at and were spoken of in contempt. Except for King Pramaganda, no other ruler is mentioned in the Vedas. It is stated in the Mahabharata that Magadha came into the limelight under the king Bimbisara and later under his son Ajatasatru. It was one of the chief empires of India during those times. The kingdom of Magadha was situated roughly where the present day Bihar is located.

Malla

Most of the scriptures of the Jains and Buddhists mention the Mallas. Their tribe was supposed to be quite powerful and they lived somewhere towards the Eastern India. The Mallas had a republic form of society and their dominant territory comprised of nine provinces. Two of these nine provinces (Pava and Kusinara) gained much importance in due course of time when Buddha came over here and took his last meal before breathing his last at Kusinara.

Panchala

The Panchalas were located in the north of India and had their province to the east of the Kurus. They were located between the Himalayan ranges and river Ganga. One can say that it was located roughly at the place where the modern day Uttar Pradesh is located. The Panchalas were originally monarchial in nature and later transformed to the republican form of government during the 5th Century B.C. They are mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra as following the constitution of the king.

Surasena

The location of the Surasena was around the west side of river Yamuna and had its capital city at Mathura. The king of Surasena, Avantiputra played a vital role in promoting Buddhism in his kingdom. He was one of the chief disciples of Buddha and aimed at spreading his knowledge and wisdom all through his kingdom. The capital city of Mathura was an important center for the worship of Lord Krishna. With time, the kingdom of Surasena was annexed by Magadha Empire.

Vajji / Vriji
The Vajji or Vriji comprised of eight to nine allied races and this kingdom became an important center of cultural and political activities. It was essentially located in northern India. Out of the nine races, the Licchhavis, the Vedehans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. The Licchhavis were an independent clan and their capital was called Vaishali. It was an important center of Buddhism and the headquarters of the powerful republic of Vajjis. Buddha is supposed to have visited Licchhavis on many occasions. As time passed, the kingdom of Licchhavis was conquered by the king of Magadha, Ajatasatru.

Vamsa / Vatsa

Considered to be an offshoot of the Kurus, the kingdom of Vatsa or Vamsa was roughly situated at the location of modern day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. The capital city was known as Kaushambi, which was a prosperous city. A number of rich merchants dwelled here. It was an important gateway for goods and people coming from the North West and south. The ruler of Vatsa was known as Udyana and he was a very powerful ruler. He became a follower of Buddha and adopted Buddhism as the religion for his kingdom.